Campylobacter is a genus of bacteria containing 17 species, including Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli, the species that most frequently cause enterocolitis in humans. European data on cases of zoonotic foodborne illnesses have shown Campylobacter to be the leading cause of food poisoning in humans by number of cases.

The main reservoir of Campylobacter is the digestive tract of warm-blooded animals, such as poultry, cattle, sheep, pigs, birds, dogs, and cats. Campylobacter is most frequently isolated in poultry, making chicken and turkey meat the leading source of foodborne infection.

In most cases of human disease (called campylobacteriosis), the symptoms consist of diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, headache, and nausea. The infection is typically self-limiting and lasts just a few days. However, Campylobacter can also cause extraintestinal infections or subsequent complications (e.g. reactive arthritis, neurological issues, inflammations of the liver and kidneys, and Guillain-Barré syndrome).

Listeria monocytogenes is a ubiquitous bacterium, i.e. one that can be found anywhere. Accordingly, it can contaminate food at any level of the production and consumption chain. It can be present and develop in soil and water, on work surfaces, on equipment used in the food industry, or in domestic environments where food is prepared and stored.

One specific characteristic of this microorganisms is its ability to multiply between -1°C and 50°C. This enables it to reproduce at refrigeration temperatures, which normally inhibit the proliferation of other bacteria. The foods most commonly associated with listeriosis are raw, undercooked or lightly cured or matured products of animal origin (meat, fish, milk), and delicatessen products, such as mayonnaise, cream cakes and coleslaw.

Listeriosis usually presents with flu-like symptoms or feverish gastroenteritis. In immune competent individuals it does not normally have serious health consequences and can even be asymptomatic. The categories at highest risk are the elderly and immune-compromised adults, in whom listeriosis can cause meningitis, encephalitis, and severe sepsis, and in pregnant women, in whom it can in some cases cause premature delivery or miscarriage.

Salmonella is a rod-shaped bacterium of the Enterobacteriaceae family. Poultry and pigs are considered the main reservoirs of Salmonella and can excrete these microorganisms through their faeces. The foods most frequently associated with salmonellosis are therefore eggs, poultry meat and pig meat.

Salmonella infection is called salmonellosis. The main symptoms in humans are diarrhoea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, nausea, headache, and fever. It presents between 12 and 72 hours of digestion of the contaminated foods and can last for 4-7 days.

In the majority of cases, recovery does not require hospitalisation. There is, however, the risk of the microorganism spreading and replicating outside the intestine (systemic infection) leading to generalised inflammatory processes. Severe systemic forms can primarily affect subjects at risk, such as newborns, the elderly, and immune-compromised individuals, prompting the need for hospital admission.

Escherichia coli normally populate human and animal intestines and are generally harmless. However, certain strains can be pathogenic and lead to human diseases, in some cases severe, including haemorrhagic colitis and haemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS), caused by verotoxigenic or Shigatoxin-producing Escherichia coli (VTEC or STEC).

Strains of VTEC E. coli can produce a highly potent toxin called verocytotoxin, which is released into the intestine. Once absorbed into the blood circulation, it can reach the central nervous system and kidneys, among other organs.

Generally, the primary transmission route to humans is oro-faecal: bacteria spread from infected animal faeces to humans through accidental contamination of foodstuffs (e.g. meat, raw milk, fruit, vegetables, water). Contamination can also result from direct contact with the excreting animals or the environments they have contaminated, particularly in the absence of appropriate health and hygiene practices.

E. coli infections are not limited to sporadic infections but can also assume epidemic proportions and spread within a community.

Clostridium botulinum, more commonly known as botulinum, is a spore-forming bacterium found in soil, sediments and dust. Once the spores become vegetative cells, they can produce toxins which, if ingested, cause food poisoning with severe symptoms.

Foods become dangerous after coming into contact with the spores when they present certain intrinsic characteristics (such as their pH) and/or are stored in environmental conditions supporting their germination. In this case the microorganism grows and produces toxins. This process can occur in canned foods since botulinum develops in the absence of oxygen.

The characteristic symptoms of botulism, i.e. botulinum poisoning, appear within 24-72 of ingestion and present as: blurred vision, difficulty focusing, drooping eyelids, dilation of the pupils, dry mouth, difficulty swallowing, and constipation. The most severe forms of botulism can lead to respiratory failure and, in rare cases, death.

Staphylococci are a genus of bacteria comprising more than 30 species, most of which are harmless to humans. However, some of them, most notably Staphylococcus aureus, produce toxins that can cause severe gastroenteritis in humans.

Enterotoxins are heat-stable proteins, i.e. they are not inactivated by cooking. Once produced, they can persist in foods even when the microorganism has been destroyed by heat. Pathogenic staphylococci therefore pose a risk when the conditions conducive to bacterial growth and production of these toxins have been created.

Pathogenic staphylococci can be present in a wide range of foods that are not subject to heat treatment. Very often these are highly processed, transformed products which have been handled without taking appropriate personal hygiene precautions and are then inadequately cooked or refrigerated. Another typically risky situation is when food is prepared too far in advance of consumption and then improperly kept at temperatures that support bacterial proliferation.

Toxoplasma gondii is a parasitic protozoan which can affect both humans and various animals. The life cycle of T. gondii is rather complex and is fully completed only in cats. These release oocysts into the environment, which represent the potentially most dangerous form of the parasite.

T. gondii infection gives rise to a pathology known as toxoplasmosis. In healthy people the disease generally runs an asymptomatic course or simply presents with flu-like symptoms. In immune-compromised persons and pregnant women, toxoplasmosis can instead have more severe consequences. In pregnant women in particular, it can cause miscarriage, malformations, or severe foetal brain damage.

Humans can become infected through the ingestion of oocytes found in raw or poorly washed fruit or vegetables, or through contact with soil or cat faeces. However, the primary route of infection in humans appears to be linked to the consumption of raw or undercooked meat containing bradyzoites, a form of parasite that encysts muscle tissue in warm-blooded animals following infection.

Hepatitis A is a liver disease caused by Hepatitis A Virus (HAV). The virus is transmitted through contaminated food or by direct contact with infected persons. Two features distinguish it from hepatitis B and C viruses: namely its transmission mode, which is primarily oro-faecal, and the fact that it does not become chronic, making full recovery possible.

The disease often has an asymptomatic course. In some cases, symptoms can manifest approximately 15-45 days after contact with the virus such as: tiredness, abdominal pain, fever, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, and jaundice (yellowish pigmentation of the skin and eyes). During the course of the disease, symptoms such as itchiness, dark-coloured urine and pale-coloured stools can appear.

Individuals can be infected by drinking contaminated water or eating various types of raw or undercooked foods. In the past epidemics have occurred in Italy associated with the ingestion of raw shellfish and frozen red berries.

Noroviruses are highly resistant to adverse environmental conditions. They can survive at temperatures above 60°C and also in the presence of chlorine, typically used to disinfect drinking water. If ingested, these agents can cause infections.

The main symptoms are nausea, vomiting (particularly in children), watery diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, and in some cases fever. There is no specific treatment: experts recommend drinking plenty of liquids to counter dehydration due to vomiting- and diarrhoea-related losses.

Noroviruses can be transmitted directly by drinking contaminated water or food, through contact with contaminated surfaces, by direct transmission from person to person, or can be aerosolised. The foods most frequently implicated in norovirus infections are: water, shellfish or fish consumed raw or undercooked; poorly washed fruits and vegetables and their derivatives.

Yersinia is a genus of bacteria belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family, including numerous species which are widely distributed in the environment. Three of these species can cause disease in both animals and humans: Yersinia enterocolitica, Yersinia pestis (the agent causing plague) and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis.

Foodborne infections are predominantly caused by pathogenic strains of Yersinia enterocolitica, which can cause enteritis in various animal species and humans. Pigs are considered the primary reservoir of the bacterium, and pig meat and its derivatives are deemed to be the main source of food poisoning. However, it has also been isolated in other foods such as red meat, milk, and vegetables.

Yersinia enterocolitica can cause a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations in humans, ranging from self-limiting enteric infections to severe septicaemia. The most common symptoms are diarrhoea (in some cases bloody), particularly in children aged under 5 years; symptoms of pseudoappendicitis (right-sided abdominal pain and fever) are observed more frequently in adults. Septicaemia is rare but can occur in individuals who are immune compromised or have high serum iron levels.

Vibrios are bacteria which can be divided into saprophytic species, i.e. normal components of the microflora of marine and estuarine waters, and species that are pathogenic for humans. The most well-known pathogenic vibrios are Vibrio cholerae (the causative agent of cholera), Vibrio vulnificus (the agent causing skin infections and, in rare cases, septicaemia in immune-compromised individuals), Vibrio parahaemolyticus (responsible for most foodborne illnesses), and Vibrio alginolyticus.

Generally, vibrio infections are transmitted to humans by direct contact with an aquatic environment, or indirectly through the consumption of contaminated food or water, most notably raw or undercooked shellfish and bivalve molluscs.

Classic cholera presents with symptoms that vary from mild watery stools to severe “rice-water” diarrhoea accompanied by signs of dehydration, to cardiovascular collapse. Non-cholera vibrios tend to cause milder infections, but these pathogens can also lead to severe diarrhoea and extraintestinal infections.

Bacillus cereus is a bacterium of the Bacillus genus that can cause foodborne illness by producing and releasing specific toxins into food. Other species of the same genus of bacteria are similarly pathogenic, such as B. anthracis, B. thuringensis, B. mycoides, B. pseudomycoides and B. weihenstephanensis: these bacteria are also referred to as the Bacillus cereus group.

Pathogenic Bacillus species are widespread throughout the environment and can thus contaminate all food products, particularly plant-based items. The spores of these microorganisms are highly resistant and can attach to any surface. They can be found in both raw fresh foods (vegetables, milk, meat), and in highly processed foods, such as for example products sold at delicatessens (which are extensively handled and subject to heat treatment).

The clinical picture of illness from Bacillus cereus depends on the type of toxins produced. The pathogen can synthesize diarrhoea-inducing toxins (causing generalised sickness, abdominal cramps, and diarrhoea) or neurotoxins (i.e. heat resistant toxins, which induce vomiting). Diarrhoea-inducing toxins undergo denaturation when food is heated to an internal temperature of over 70°C for at least five minutes. Once produced, however, neurotoxins are resistant at 130°C for 90 minutes. This means that they may not be inactivated even by intense cooking.

The bacterial strains that produce neurotoxins are rarer and less common than the ones producing diarrhoea-inducing toxins, which explains why the disease presents far more frequently with diarrhoea without fever. The neurotoxin-producing strains thrive in starch-rich foods such as rice, pasta and polenta, which are the foods at the highest risk for this form of intoxication.

Shigella is a bacterium that can infect humans with varying levels of severity. The pathogen is highly sensitive to the action of disinfectants and detergents but can show varying degrees of resistance in the outdoor environment, particularly when found in organic material.

Shigella is transmitted by the faecal-oral route. It can thus be contracted following ingestion of water and foods contaminated with faecal material of infected persons (symptomatic and asymptomatic) or by using contaminated utensils. Insects, such as flies, can also transmit the bacteria, transporting it from contaminated material to food and objects.

Shigella infections are generally characterised by visibly bloody diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, painful and unproductive tenesmus (urge to pass stools), fever, and anorexia.

Anisakis is a nematode, i.e. a small parasitic worm which in its adult stage thrives in the stomach of marine mammals such as whales and dolphins. Its life cycle includes various stages, during which it transforms from egg to larva to adult and is hosted by various marine animals. Humans can become infected by eating certain types of raw or undercooked fish or marine shellfish (particularly anchovies, sardines, cuttlefish, and squid) containing third-stage larvae of anisakis.

These larvae measure between 1 and 3 centimetres and are visible to the naked eye. They are typically found in the abdominal cavity, intestine, liver, gonads and muscles of fish and shellfish. Their colour ranges from white to pink, they are slender and tend to roll up like a ball.

Larvae ingested by humans do not develop to the adult parasite stage and are destined to die, often without causing any symptoms. In some cases, however, they can burrow into the gastric or intestinal mucosa, causing abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and occasionally fever. Their penetration into the mucosa triggers an inflammatory reaction which can in some cases lead to ulcers

The only treatment is surgery and consists of direct removal of the parasite from the gastrointestinal mucosa.

Trichinella is a nematode, i.e. a small parasitic roundworm measuring just a few millimetres in length, which can infect mammals, birds, and reptiles, most notably carnivores and omnivores (pigs, foxes, wild boars, dogs, cats, and humans).

The sole transmission route to humans is food, via the consumption of raw or undercooked meat containing the parasitic larvae, which are microscopic in size. The most common source of infection is game meat, particularly wild boar, but the parasite can also be found in pork and horse meat.

Trichinellosis can initially cause symptoms such as enteritis, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, and vomiting; these may be followed by fever, muscle pain, sweating, weakness, swelling of the upper eyelids, and photophobia.

Echinococcus is a tapeworm, i.e. a small, flat parasitic worm measuring just a few millimetres in length, which infests mainly dogs and sheep, but also goats, pigs, cattle, horses, and various wild animals

Dogs are the definitive hosts of these parasites, or rather the only animal in which they can develop to the full adult stage and reproduce. In dogs harbouring the parasite, this causes a slight infection, whereas the larvae, which can be ingested by other animals (intermediate hosts) or accidentally by humans, can in some cases produce severe symptoms.

Humans can become infected by echinococcus by consuming food contaminated by microscopic parasite eggs, which are eliminated in the faeces of infected dogs and released into the environment.The eggs can produce cysts in various organs (liver, lungs, etc) containing a substance called “hydatid sand”. If the cysts are ruptured, this substance can spread to the host organism, causing a variety of symptoms, depending on the organ affected, including anaphylactic shock.

The eggs can produce cysts in various organs (liver, lungs, etc) containing a substance called “hydatid sand”. If the cysts are ruptured, this substance can spread to the host organism, causing a variety of symptoms, depending on the organ affected, including anaphylactic shock.

Clostridium perfringens is a ubiquitous bacterium, i.e. it is present throughout the environment. It produces high-temperature-resistant spores and, in suitable conditions, can germinate into endotoxin-producing vegetative cells. For poisoning to occur, the bacteria must have first contaminated the food and been able to multiply and reach a certain infectious load. The food must then be ingested by a human; digestion in the stomach induces sporulation and supports synthesis of the enterotoxin, which is then released into the intestine.

When left at room temperature, cooked meat dishes (e.g. meat sauces, roast meats, lasagne, stews) are among the foods at highest risk of being involved in poisoning by Clostridium perfringens. In most cases, the presence of the bacterium on raw meat stems from accidental faecal contamination during slaughtering procedures. However, other types of foods can also be risky, particularly if they are handled extensively, cooked, and subsequently improperly stored after heating.

The disease presents between 6 and 24 hours of eating the contaminated food. Symptoms are gastrointestinal: the most frequent are watery diarrhoea and abdominal cramps, while vomiting and fever are unusual. In most healthy, immune competent individuals, the foodborne illness is self-limiting, i.e. it clears up on its own, generally within 24 hours. However, in immune depressed individuals or the elderly, the toxin can enter the bloodstream through the circulatory torrent, even leading to death in rare cases.

Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites of fungi - produced that is by their metabolism – which can develop on foods for human or livestock consumption. This means that they are natural toxic contaminants which can accidentally become present in foods.

When ingested in large quantities, mycotoxins can cause mycotoxicoses, i.e. pathologies that can lead to mutagenicity, cancer, and gastrointestinal, kidney, and oestrogen disorders, or in some cases immune suppression, reducing resistance to infectious diseases.

Mycotoxins can contaminate cereals, spices, oilseeds, fresh and dried fruits, pulses, or other products such as milk, wine, beer, and coffee. Currently, over 300 mycotoxins have been identified; however, those primarily involved in intoxication are aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, and zeralenones.

Aquatic (marine and freshwater) environments present microscopic unicellular algae: tiny plant organisms forming the base of the water food chain, which together are known as phytoplankton. When environmental conditions supporting their growth are combined with sufficient concentrations of nutrients and adequate temperatures, certain algae can rapidly reproduce, giving rise to algal bloom events.

During these processes, some microalgae can produce biotoxins, i.e. toxic substances of biological origin. These toxins can accumulate particularly in bivalve molluscs, such as mussels and clams, due to the water- filtering feeding method used by these shellfish. They can also build up in some fish and shellfish that feed on phytoplankton.

Algal biotoxins are generally not toxic to the shellfish and fish in which they accumulate, but can be harmful to humans, leading to food poisoning following consumption of contaminated fish products. Since these toxins are heat-stable, that is they are resistant to heat, cooking does not eliminate the risk.

Histamine is a natural nitrogenous compound belonging to the biogenic amine family. It is also produced by our body and is involved in inflammatory and allergic responses, in gastric secretion, and in some brain activities. It is therefore a physiologically important substance for our organism but can unfortunately become harmful when presenting at high levels.

Histamine can also accumulate in some foods, such as fish which has been poorly preserved or kept for too long and could cause food poisoning if eaten. The species at highest risk are tuna, anchovies, sardines, herrings, and mackerel. Histamine poisoning is also known as scombroid fish syndrome due to the frequency with which it can be triggered by the above listed species.

The histamine level in these products depends on the number of amino acids present and increases as the product loses its freshness. It is mostly produced by the proliferation of bacteria at temperatures above 6-10°C.

Heavy metals (e.g. lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium) are naturally present in the environment, but can accumulate at high concentrations in soil, air, or water as a result of human activity. Pollution is the chief source of elevated environmental concentrations of heavy metals, which can be found in soil or waterways close to industrial estates, or near to roads, high-traffic-density sea areas, or fertilized arable lands.

Heavy metals can therefore accumulate in foods following exposure of animals and plants to environmental contamination. Chemical analyses often yield traces of these substances, particularly in the meat of large predator fish (tuna, swordfish, marlin which, by preying on smaller fish, are subject to bioaccumulation of these substances) and bivalve molluscs (which retain these substances on filtering the water). This is also true of crustaceans, leafy greens, cereals, and potatoes.

The toxic effects of heavy metals can also affect various human organs, particularly the kidneys, liver, and nervous system. When ingested in large doses by pregnant women, methylmercury, in particular, can harm foetal nervous system development.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a large group of organic, mostly non-volatile compounds. In the air of confined environments they can be found partly in the vapour phase and partly absorbed on particulate matter, i.e. microscopic solid or liquid substances as a whole suspended in the air.

The main sources are gas, carbon and wood combustion in energy production. The most important source of human origin is vehicle emissions, followed by thermal plants, thermoelectric power stations, and incinerators. PAH emissions also form when foods are grilled.

Exposure to PAH can have mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. Specifically, these substances can cause skin cancer by contact and lung tumours by inhalation.

Acrylamide is a toxic substance that forms in foods, particularly very starchy ones, such as bread, potatoes, and baked products, when cooked to high temperatures (above 120°C). It can also form in coffee as a by-product of the bean roasting process.

Once ingested, acrylamide is absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and subsequently distributed to all organs and metabolised. One of the main metabolites produced in this process is glycidamide. Both acrylamide and glycidamide are genotoxic (potentially causing DNA mutations) and carcinogenic substances. They can affect the central and peripheral nervous systems and the reproductive system.

Acrylamide formation is not limited to industrial food production but can also be generated during domestic cooking when certain highly starchy foods are heated excessively, such as by overfrying potatoes, or burning bread during toasting or grilling.

Heterocyclic amines are a group of different chemical compounds, some of which have carcinogenic characteristics. Carcinogenic heterocyclic amines can be formed when overheating (charring) meat, particularly beef, pork, poultry, and fish.

Nitrosamines are chemical compounds that can form during the production and transformation of various types of food: meat- and fish-based products, vegetables, cereals, cocoa, dairy products, pickles, and alcoholic beverages.

Nitrosamines can also form in the human body due to the reaction of nitrites - used as preserving agents in cured meats and cheese - with aminated nitrogen present in the protein structures of foods such as meat, fish, and cheese. Or they can form in foods cooked at high temperatures, such as through frying or roasting.

Some nitrosamines are genotoxic (i.e. they can damage DNA) and carcinogenic (they can cause cancer).

Dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) are toxic chemical substances that persist in the environment and can accumulate in the food chain. Dioxins are unwanted by-products of certain thermal and industrial processes. PCBs are instead substances which were widely used in the past in various manufacturing sectors, until being banned in most countries at the end of the 1980s.

Dioxins and some so-called “dioxin-like” PCBs are grouped together because of their similar toxicological properties. Other so-called “non dioxin-like PCBs” have different toxicity mechanisms, but can nonetheless be detrimental to health. It has been demonstrated that long-term exposure to dioxins and PCBs causes a series of adverse effects on the nervous, immune and endocrine systems and can impair reproductive function. They are also potentially carcinogenic substances.

In Europe the environmental presence of these compounds has fallen drastically since the 1970s, following actions taken by public health authorities and industry to limit environmental pollution and the accumulation of these substances in foodstuffs.

The term PFAS is the acronym of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances. This category includes numerous heterogeneous groups of synthetic chemical compounds that share a particular chemical structure based on carbon and fluorine atoms, giving these substances enhanced heat and chemical stability. Starting from the 1950s, PFAS have been widely used as additives, components or coatings in various manufacturing sectors: from the construction to the paper industry, from surgical products to electronics, from household goods (e.g. non-stick pans, floor polish) to garment fabrics.

International studies have revealed that PFAS (particularly those characterised by a long chain of carbon atoms) can potentially lead to bioaccumulation and toxicity in humans. They have been classified as potentially carcinogenic and deemed to cause alterations in the main blood biochemical parameters, having been observed to interfere primarily with liver and thyroid function.

In recent decades, in various parts of the world, these substances have been reported to cause pollution and to persist in the environment close to manufacturing facilities, contaminating water, animals, food, and humans (directly and indirectly).

Pesticides are substances used in both animal husbandry and agricultural production to eradicate organisms that can cause harm and disease to animals and plants. In layman’s language the term is used primarily to indicate plant protection products, i.e. substances used to support the health of crops and protect them against parasites, bacteria, and viruses (herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, acaricides, plant growth regulators, repellents). The term can also extend to biocides, i.e. substances used to eliminate pests such as insects, rats, and mice.

Plant protection products contain substances that can accumulate along the food chain, with potentially negative effects for consumer health. For this reason, before an active substance can be used in a plant protection product in the EU, it must be approved by the European Commission following an in-depth risk assessment. Hence European legislation closely regulates the possibility to use and market plant protection products, in addition to establishing the maximum residue levels in foods.

Additives are substances intentionally added to food products for technological purposes. Some are used to increase product durability and therefore shelf life. Others serve to enhance the sensory properties of foodstuffs and make them more appetising for consumers.

The use of additives is governed by national and European regulations which establish which substances can be used, in which foods, and at what levels. These regulations are based on risk assessments performed by competent health authorities, such as the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). European legislation also makes it compulsory for manufacturers to indicate the additives used in food products on the respective food labels.

Additives are classified according to their function (e.g. colourings, preservatives, thickening agents, etc.). Each additive has its own number preceded by the letter E, in accordance with a standardised European classification.

Materials intended to come into contact with foods include packaging, plastic film, paper or aluminium sheets, food transportation recipients and containers, kitchen utensils, but also materials used for food processing equipment and machinery, and those designed for beverages.

Constituents of food contact materials are potential chemical contaminants since they risk being transferred into and onto food, potentially altering its composition and giving rise to toxicity. They also pose physical risks as, for example, through the ingestion of fragments of material accidentally present in the food, with detrimental effects on health.

To avoid this happening, before placing food contact materials on the market, manufacturers are bound to perform a series of specially designed controls and analyses to determine whether substances can potentially migrate into or onto food, or to establish the conditions of use for the material by other food manufacturers or consumers.

Consumers can determine whether a material is designed for contact with food by checking for the “wine glass and fork” symbol, or the wording “food safe” or “safe for food use.”

Fresh refrigerated, deep-frozen, and frozen foods must be constantly kept at low temperatures, avoiding excessive changes in temperature, from the time of production to their entry into the supply chain, up to the moment they are placed in the consumer’s fridge or freezer. This requirement is referred to in the food safety field by the term “cold chain.”

Breaking the cold chain causes not only foods’ organoleptic properties to deteriorate but also, and above all, pathogenic microorganisms to grow and proliferate. Below are the reference temperature ranges at which various products must be kept:

• fresh (refrigerated): 0°C/+4°C
• frozen: -7°C/-12°C
• deep-frozen: below -18°C

Freezing is a technique which consists of lowering a food’s temperature more or less rapidly to a few degrees below zero and is commonly used in domestic freezing. This method produces larger ice crystals and causes more structural damage to the food, resulting in the loss of liquid on defrosting.

Deep-freezing is a special freezing technique, predominantly used in industry, which must comply with certain requirements. The core temperature of a closed-packaged product must reach -18°C within four hours and remain at that temperature until the time of sale. The advantage of deep-freezing is that small ice crystals form in the food and do not therefore ruin its structure.

The term shelf-life is used in the food safety field to indicate a product’s commercial life, i.e. the time elapsing between the manufacturing of a food and its consumption, without risks to consumer health. The shelf-life can be indicated on the packaging by the expiry date or minimum durability date.

The expiry date corresponds to the “use-by” date, applied to fresh and perishable foods. This refers to the date beyond which the food is no longer safe and absolutely must not be consumed to avoid the risk of contracting foodborne illness.

The minimum durability date corresponds to the term “best before” applied to stable foods. This term indicates the date beyond which the organoleptic properties may have deteriorated, but the food item can still be consumed without risks for health (although it is preferable to consume it as soon as possible).

The term cross-contamination refers to the unintentional transfer of microorganisms or chemical substances from one food to another. The transfer may be direct, when there is direct contact between two foods or one drips onto the other; or indirect, through intermediate means such as work surfaces, cooking utensils, or hands handling and preparing foods.

In the second case the contamination process takes place in two stages: firstly, the microorganisms or substances present in a food are transferred to hands, surfaces or utensils; secondly, these are transferred through contact with other foods.

Cross-contaminations pose a risk when the transfer involves pathogenic microorganisms, which can in some cases lead to foodborne illness, or substances that can cause allergies, intolerances, or food poisoning.

The food pyramid is a representation designed for adults aged between 18 and 65 years, inviting them to follow a Mediterranean-type diet. The image clearly communicates the recommended quantity and frequency with which to eat various food types over the course of a day or week with the aim to foster healthy eating and reduce food risks.

The foods depicted in the lower part of the pyramid can be eaten most regularly and in the largest amounts, while those at the top should be consumed less frequently and in small amounts. Plant-based foods, which are rich in non-energy yielding nutrients (vitamins, minerals, water) and protective compounds (fibre), can be found at the bottom of the pyramid. Higher-energy density foods are placed further up the pyramid. These should be consumed less to reduce overweight and prevent obesity and metabolic pathologies.

The pyramid also emphasizes the vital importance of physical activity and drinking plenty of water.